About the Author
Alison Weir lives and works in Surrey. Her non-fiction books include The Six Wives of Henry VIII, Children of England, Eleanor of Aquitaine, Henry VIII: King and Court, Mary, Queen of Scots, Katherine Swynford and Elizabeth of York. Her novels include Innocent Traitor, The Lady Elizabeth and A Dangerous Inheritance.
About the Book
Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine was one of the leading personalities of the Middle Ages, and also one of the most controversial. Having inherited a vast feudal domain stretching from the Loire to the Pyrenees, she was one of the greatest heiresses in history; yet in her own day, she was famous not only for who she was, but also for what she did. In an age when women were treated as mere chattels, she made her own choices, wielded power and won widespread respect. Circumstances, however, dictated that her memory would be sullied by calumny and misunderstanding.
Eleanor was no saint. She was beautiful, intelligent and wilful, and in her lifetime there were rumours about her that were not without substance. Her contemporaries were sometimes scandalised by her behaviour. She had been reared in a relaxed and licentious court where the arts of the troubadours flourished, and was even said to have presided over the fabled Courts of Love. Eleanor married in turn Louis VII of France and Henry II of England, and was the mother of Richard the Lionheart and King John. She lived to be 82, but it was only in old age that she triumphed over the adversities and tragedies of her earlier years and became virtual ruler of England.
I should like to extend very special thanks to my editor, Anthony Whittome, for his creative input and his unflagging enthusiasm for this project, and to my commissioning editor, Will Sulkin, for his tremendous support. Gratitude is also due to Lily Richards for her indefatigable picture research, and to the design team at Jonathan Cape for the jacket design and layout.
As always, I must express my thanks to my agent Julian Alexander, without whom this book would not exist: he kept faith with this project for many years before its acceptance. I am grateful also to his former assistant, Kirstan Romano, for all her kindness. Finally, as ever, thank you, Rankin, my husband, and John and Kate, my children, for putting up with me while this book was in preparation. I could never have done it without you.
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Nouvelle anthologie des Troubadours (ed. J. Audiau, Paris, 1928)
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Ordericus Vitalis: Orderici Vitalis Angligenae Coenobi Uticensis Monachi, Historia Ecclesiae: The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy (ed. A. le Prevost, 5 vols, Société de l’Histoire de France, Paris, 1838–55; also trans. and ed. Thomas Forester, 4 vols, Bohn’s Antiquarian Library, London, 1853–6)
Oeuvres de Rigord et de Guillaume le Breton, historiens de Philippe Auguste (ed. H.F. Delaborde, 2 vols, Société de l’Histoire de France, Paris, 1882–5)
Paris, Matthew: Chronica Major (ed. H.R. Luard, 7 vols, Rolls Series, 1872–3)
Paris, Matthew: Flores Historiarum (once erroneously ascribed to Paris; see under Roger of Wendover)
Paris, Matthew: Historia Anglorum, sive, ut vulgo dicitur, Historia Minor (ed. Sir Frederick H. Madden, 3 vols, Rolls Series, 1866–9)
Patrologiae Latinae, Cursus Completus a Tertullian ad Innocentium III, Series Latinae (ed. J.P. Migne, 221 vols, Paris, 1844–64)
Percy, Thomas: Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (ed. R.A. Willmott, London, undated)
Peter of Blois: Petri Blensis Archidiaconi Opera Omnia (ed. J.A. Giles, 4 vols, Oxford, 1846–7; also in Patrologiae Latinae, Vol. CCVII, ed. J.P. Migne, Paris, 1855)
The Peterborough Chronicle: Chronicon Angliae Petriburgense, 1070–1154 (ed. J.A. Giles, London, 1945; also ed. Cecily Clark, Oxford, 1970)
The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne: Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne and Aucassin and Nicolette: Aucassin et Nicolette (ed. Anne Elizabeth Cobby and Glyn S. Burgess, New York and London, 1988)
Pipe Rolls: see The Great Rolls of the Pipe
Ralph of Coggeshall: Radulphi de Coggeshall Chronicon Anglicanum: The English Chronicle (ed. Joseph Stevenson, Rolls Series, 1875)
Ralph of Diceto: Imagines Historiarum: Images of History (ed. William Stubbs in The Historical Works of Master Ralph of Diceto, Rolls Series, 1876)
Ralph of Diceto (Diss): Radulfi de Diceto Decani Londoniensis Opera Historica: The Historical Works of Master Ralph of Diceto, Deacon of London (ed. William Stubbs, 2 vols, Rolls Series, 1876)
Ralph Niger: Radulphi Nigri Chronica (ed. Robert Anstruther, Caxton Society, London, 1851)
Raoul de Cambrai (ed. Sarah Kay, Oxford, 1992)
The Receipt Roll of the Exchequer for Michaelmas Term 1185 (ed. Hubert Hall, London School of Economics, 1899)
Receuil des actes de Henri II, roi d’Angleterre et duc de Normandie, concernant les provinces françaises et les affaires de France (ed. Léopold Delisle and Elie Berger, 4 vols, Paris, 1906–27)
Receuil des actes de Philippe Auguste, roi de France (ed. H.F. Delaborde et al., 3 vols, Paris, 1916–66)
Receuil d’annales Angevins et Vendômoises (ed. L. Halphen, Paris, 1903)
Receuil des historiens des croisades: Auteurs occidentaux (5 vols, Paris, 1872–1906) and Auteurs orientaux (5 vols, Paris, 1872–1906) (par les soins de l’Académie Impériale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres)
Receuil des historiens des Gaules at de la France: Rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum Scriptores (ed. Léopold Delisle, M. Bouquet et al., 24 vols, Paris, 1738–1904)
The Red Book of the Exchequer (ed. H. Hall, 3 vols, Rolls Series, 1896)
Richard of Devizes: Chronicon Richardi Divisensis de tempore Regis Richardi Primi: Richard of Devizes’ Chronicle of the Times of King Richard the First (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. Richard Howlett, Rolls Series, 1884–90; also trans. and ed. John T. Appleby, London, 1963)
Richard of Hexham: Historia Ricardi, Prioris Ecclesia Haugustaldensis, De Gesta Regis Stephani: Richard, Prior of Hexham’s History of the Deeds of King Stephen (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. Richard Howlett, Rolls Series, 1884–90)
Richard le Poitevin: Ex Chronico (in Receuil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. Léopold Delisle et al., 24 vols, Paris, 1738–1904)
Rigord: Gesta Philippi Augusti: The Deeds of Philip Augustus (ed. H.F. Delaborde in Oeuvres de Rigord et de Guillaume le Breton, Société de l’Histoire de France, 1882–5)
Rishanger William: Chronica (ed. H.T. Riley, Rolls Series, 1865)
Robert of Torigny: Chronica Roberti de Torigneio, Abbatis Monasterii Sancti Michaelis in Periculo Maris (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. Richard Howlett, Rolls Series, 1884–90)
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Eleanor of Aquitaine was born into a Europe dominated by feudalism. In the twelfth century there was no concept of nationhood or patriotism, and subjects owed loyalty to their ruler, rather than the state.
Europe was split into principalities called feudatories, each under the rule of a king, duke or count, and personal allegiance, or fealty, was what counted. This was expressed in the ceremony of homage, in which a kneeling vassal would place his hands between those of his overlord and swear to render him service and obedience.
The most powerful kings and lords could command obedience and aid from lesser rulers; a breach of fealty was generally held to be dishonourable, and although some paid mere lip-service to the ideal, the threat of intervention in a dispute by one’s overlord often remained an effective restraint. On the other hand, an overlord was bound to offer protection, friendship and aid to a vassal beset by enemies, so the system had its advantages.
Feudal Europe was essentially a military society. Warfare was the business of kings and noblemen, and to many it was an elaborate game played by the rules of chivalry (a word deriving from the French chevalerie, meaning cavalry), a knightly code embodying ideals of courage, loyalty, honesty, courtesy and charity. These rules were often strictly observed, and any breach of them was regarded with opprobrium.
routiers